A new study from the University of Cambridge’s Minderoo Centre for Technology and Democracy (MCTD) reveals significant concerns among UK novelists regarding the impact of artificial intelligence on their profession. According to research led by Dr Clementine Collett, 59% of surveyed novelists said they are aware that their work has been used to train AI large language models without their permission or compensation.
The report is based on a survey conducted between February and May 2025, involving 258 published novelists, 32 literary agents, and 42 professionals in fiction publishing. The findings indicate that over a third (39%) of novelists have already experienced a decline in income due to generative AI, with most expecting further reductions in the future.
Genre authors are seen as particularly vulnerable to AI-driven displacement. Sixty-six percent of respondents listed romance writers as “extremely threatened,” followed by thriller (61%) and crime writers (60%). Despite these risks, sentiment towards AI is not uniformly negative; 80% agreed that AI brings benefits to some sectors of society, and one-third use it for tasks such as information searches rather than creative writing.
However, many literary professionals believe current copyright laws do not protect their interests adequately against unauthorized use by AI companies. Calls were made for greater transparency from technology firms and stronger support from government bodies regarding informed consent and fair remuneration.
“There is widespread concern from novelists that generative AI trained on vast amounts of fiction will undermine the value of writing and compete with human novelists,” said Dr Clementine Collett, BRAID UK Research Fellow at Cambridge’s MCTD and author of the report, published in partnership with the Institute for the Future of Work. “Many novelists felt uncertain there will be an appetite for complex, long-form writing in years to come.”
Collett also noted: “Novels contribute more than we can imagine to our society, culture, and to the lives of individuals. Novels are a core part of the creative industries, and the basis for countless films, television shows, and videogames.” She added: “The novel is a precious and vital form of creativity that is worth fighting for”
Some tech companies have developed tools such as Sudowrite or Novelcrafter—used for brainstorming or editing—and Qyx AI Book Creator or Squibler—which can draft entire books—intensifying competition within publishing. Platforms like Spines offer automated services across cover design and distribution.
Collett commented on these developments: “The brutal irony is that the generative AI tools affecting novelists are likely trained on millions of pirated novels scraped from shadow libraries without the consent or remuneration of authors.”
Focus groups revealed additional challenges faced by writers: some reported finding books under their name online which they had not authored; others noticed reviews featuring errors characteristic of machine-generated content damaging sales prospects.
“Most authors do not earn enough from novels alone and rely on income streams such as freelance copywriting or translation which are rapidly drying up due to generative AI,” said Collett.
There was broad opposition to a proposed UK government model allowing text mining unless rights holders opt out; 83% believed this would harm publishing while 93% would choose not to let their works be used if given an option. Instead, most favored an opt-in system managed collectively through unions or industry bodies—a solution selected by nearly half those surveyed.
Stephen May—a novelist referenced in the report—expressed concern about how reliance on algorithms could remove essential elements like friction or struggle from drafting novels: “[W]e are an AI free publisher, and we will have a stamp on the cover. And then up to the public to decide whether they want to buy that book or not. But let’s tell the public what AI is doing.” Many respondents echoed this sentiment.
Dr Collett summarized broader anxieties about losing originality in literature if artificial intelligence continues unchecked: “Novelists, publishers, and agents alike said the core purpose of the novel is to explore and convey human complexity,” she explained. “Many spoke about increased use of AI putting this at risk, as AI cannot understand what it means to be human.”
Concerns extend beyond economics; only one-third of UK children say they enjoy reading outside school hours—a statistic highlighting worries about diminishing engagement with literature among younger generations.
Accordingly, many advocate expanding access both through curriculum changes emphasizing human-authored works alongside government-backed programs supporting diverse voices—efforts aimed at countering increasing uniformity linked with algorithmically generated fiction.
The median annual income for UK authors stood at £7,000 in 2022—substantially below minimum wage levels—with alternative opportunities shrinking due largely to advances in generative technologies (Thomas et al., "UK Authors’ Earnings and Contracts 2022").
Dr Collett concluded: “Novelists are clearly calling for policy and regulation that forces AI companies to be transparent about training data... Copyright law must continue to be reviewed and might need reform... It is only fair that writers are asked permission and paid for use of their work.”